By Ella Incantalupo (Fall 2022)
Oftentimes, predominantly white nations use descriptors of what they are not, in order to define what they are. The result is othering different nations, cultures and religions, in order to be described as more English. This phenomenon is as prevalent today as it was over 700 years ago. Yet to understand present day racism and othering in predominantly white nations, one would need to look back at the original rhetoric. In doing so, one can see the societal impact and mentality that describes what we are through a reductionist view and the way this may have changed or developed. Looking back at older texts from predominantly white nations allows readers today to see this view and how events from the time have shaped our thinking today. For example, in the second branch of the Four Branches of the Mabinogi, Welsh nationality through colonization and the wholeness of the Welsh nation is explored. Welsh nationalistic thinking, and the peoples desire to be considered not just a part of Britain but also considered close to English culture is demonstrated through the discrimination of others. In the Second Branch, the author of Four Branches of the Mabinogi uses symbolism of broken and dismembered bodies throughout the text to reflect on the wholeness of a nation, relating the Welsh identity in an apophatic or reductionist manner.
In order to understand the nationalism of the Welsh in the second branch of the Four Branches of the Mabinogi one must first know the historical context. There are very close links between the second branch and Welsh history. According to the documentary, “The Secret Life of Books: The Mabinogion”, by Cerys Matthews, this text is one part of the four texts of the Mabinogi. All four branches can be found in “The Red Book” as they were written down sometime between 1375 and 1425 but passed on through oral tradition prior to. King Edward of England was the first to begin to colonize the many Kingdoms of Wales in 1284. The last native prince of Wales was executed during this conquest and King Edward’s son took claim as the new prince of Wales. Britain consists of England, Scotland and Wales, The United Kingdom consists of England, Scotland and Wales as well as Northern Ireland. The English started this expansion with the colonization of Wales. Centuries after, Wales officially became part of Britain, shaping what it meant to be British compared to what it meant to be English. With the introduction of Northern Ireland and Scotland to the United Kingdom the desire to be considered more English and more like England became clear. In this, competition between the nations of the United Kingdoms arose. However, there was also a desire to find balance and preserve old roots of nationalism while becoming colonized and desiring to become more like England.
The history of “The Red Book” is also vital in understanding the themes of the second branch of The Mabinogi. According to “The Secret Life of Books: The Mabinogion”, by Cerys Matthews, this book is the preservation of Welsh roots. It is the largest compilation of medieval texts written in middle Welsh. It was an act of the preservation of the Welsh nation in a time of colonization. This desire for preserving the Welsh culture through English colonization while also desiring to be considered more like the English can be seen through the texts of this time. While many medieval books are written in latin according to Cerys Matthews, this book was a purposeful act of preserving the middle Welsh culture and values. The desire to assimilate into the English culture and reductionist apophatic views meant leaving much Welsh culture behind. In turn without the culture, tradition and language, they defined themselves as who they are not instead of who they are.
Furthermore “The Red Book” is often described by experts as one that is disjointed and incoherent in their writing. Not only is the Second Branch of Mabinogi one part of a series of 4 branches, but it was compiled into a book with many other written stories and texts. All of these compiled texts are disjointed and do not flow together. According to The Broadview Anthology of British Literature, The Four Branches of The Mabinogi can be considered as tree branches, they are all considered both there own text, distinctly different with its own twigs, flowers and buds as well as part of the same cohesive place, all stemming from the same trunk. In this way the texts have been considered disjointed and challenging to put together by experts. This text says “Fifty years ago, even experts who had worked closely with the text were saying it presented ‘a broken design and mutilated fragments, great confusions and unanswerable problems… however they got to be the way they are, their medieval audience found them meaningful and entertaining’’”. The book itself is disjointed, hard for the scholars who translated the texts to decipher and piece each reading together. The texts were challenging and fragmented but placing how each branch of the Mabinogi branch off and fit together is also fragmented. Finally, the connection between the Mabinogi and the other texts also found in “The Redbook” is unclear and discontinuous. Not only does the content of the second branch of Mabinogi, as previously stated, have recurring and major symbolism of broken bodies as nationalism, but even the book itself is broken and disjointed. Both the physical book and the texts within feature an inherent brokenness.
The second branch of the Four Branches of the Mabinogi features the broken bonds between nations through the symbolism of mutilated horses. The text is set up through Branwen, sister of the King of Britain, being arranged to marry Matholwch, the King of Ireland. This marriage would join the two lands and create a prosperity and flourishing relation between the two nations. The brother of the King of Britain, Efnysien was not consulted in this decision, angered and insulted by this neglect, he retaliates against Matholwch through the destruction of his fleet of horses. Matholwch, takes the anger out on Branwen during their marriage, sending her to the kitchen where she is beaten. The author tells the start of this negative relation and breaking of bonds stating Efnysien “rushed under the horses and cut off their lips at the teeth, and their ears close to their heads, and their tails close to their backs, and wherever he could clutch their eyelids, he cut them to the very bone, and he disfigured the horses and rendered them useless” (Second branch of the Four Branches of the Mabinogi). The speaker writes this symbolism of breaking nations with such passion, not only are the horses murdered, they are brutally disfigured to be unrecognizable. In this act, bodies are not just broken and dismembered, but the bond between nations are. This vengeful mutilation begins a hate filled relationship between the two nations. This is the source of the conflict and the start of war. With the breaking of these bodies, expectations of flourishing peaceful nations are absolutely shattered. This vivid, violent imagery shows how devastating the symbolic breaking of the bonds between nations are.
The bond between Ireland and Wales is broken through this violent act, the fact that the bodies broken were horses shows absolute disrespect. At this time, horses were seen as a symbol of status and chivalry. The amount of horses that one had, the strength and speed of the horses, and the decorative ornaments that would be laid on them such as extravagant saddles, all demonstrated the power and wealth that one had. A person’s image was dependent on their horses. Rich knights, noblemen and royals were the only ones who could afford a horse and taking care of them was a direct correlation to one’s chivalry. The translation of the old french word “chival” is “horse”, chivalry when literally translated from old french means “horsemanship”. An attack on a person’s horse was an attack on their chivalric nature. With this context, Efnysien’s brutal mutilation of the King of Ireland’s horses was an attack on his chivalry and status. It is not just broken bodies, it is the breaking of a nation’s bond after a violent attack on a nation’s chivalric status.
The breaking of bodies in this text shows the horrific cost of war. The ultimate protagonist, Branwen, dies from a broken heart at the end of the war, this is the cost. The all out war between the nations leads to many deaths on both sides. While the Irish are ultimately defeated, all but 5 pregnant women left to repopulate the iles, there is much loss on both sides. Branwen, crushed and overwhelmed by the state of war, reflected on the loss of people and “looked towards Ireland and towards the Island of the Mighty, to see if she could descry them. “Alas,” said she, “woe is me that I was ever born; two islands have been destroyed because of me!” Then she uttered a loud groan, and there broke her heart.” (Second branch of the Four Branches of the Mabinogi). This symbolic broken body of our heroine is one that represents the nation’s loss, and grief at times of international conflict. The Welsh show nationalism through the expense of the Irish and their total devastation of needing to repopulate while also showing how different they are from each other. Branwen was the connection between the two nations through marriage. She was physically in Ireland yet her roots and loyalties were to the Welsh. Her broken heart and her death other’s the nation of Ireland. She was the connection, despite the connection being toxic and death ridden, she was the connection. This reiterates the fact that the Welsh and the English are more connected than they are to the Irish. In order for the Welsh to feel more English and be considered more English, they put the Irish down. The only way to feel English is to have an apophatic and reductive ideology of who we are not. Her broken body was the death of connecting and relating to the Irish, this distinctly shows that the Welsh do not associate with the Irish. The Welsh define who they are by who they are not, and they are not like the Irish shown through her broken body.
The breaking of bodies is strung throughout the text, to represent the nationality of the Welsh. Bran’s head being dismembered and buried shows the nationalistic view of the Welsh. A war breaks out between the Welsh and the Irish after news of Branwens mistreatment. The war leaves many dead including Bran, who is fatally wounded by a poisoned spear. He commands his army to cut his head off and bury it facing France to protect all of Britain from invasion saying “take you my head…and bear it even unto the White Mount, in London, and bury it there, with the face towards France… In Harlech you will be feasting seven years, the birds of Rhiannon singing unto you the while. And all that time the head will be to you as pleasant company as it ever was when on my body” ( Second branch of the Four Branches of the Mabinogi). This disembodiment, while born out of violence and suffering from the broken bonds between nations, signifies the protection of all of Britain, the English, Welsh and the Irish at the time. This form of disembodiment unifies the nations against a common enemy of france. However the Welsh nationalism is very clear. The actions of the Welsh and using the ruler of the Welsh nation to protect all the other nations shows this scene of pride. This act, simultaneously unites all of Britain and demonstrates the othering of Ireland. The text first paints Ireland as the antagonist, and the English and the Welsh as the protagonists. However the broken body of Bran shows the connections of Britain as a whole. Due to this, the text shows the Welsh have more cultural ties to the English than the Irish and British isles as a whole. The Welsh taking this act of protection represented through the broken body shows a nationalistic pride and duty while continues to show they are more English than Ireland is considered.
The othering of different nations, cultures, and ethnicities in order for white nations to be considered more like the English is very clear in the second branch of the four branches of the Mabinogi with the theme of nationality shown through the form of symbolism of broken bodies. When reading this text today, we can see ties to how predominantly white nations also have a reductionist and apophatic view, defining their nationality by what they are not. Instead of having a culture of their own, traditions, and nationalism from the accomplishments they made, predominantly white run nations find accomplishments not by doing but by not doing. In order to be perceived as more English in the past, predominantly white run nations would put others down. Now, these nations have a reductionist view that excludes and others nations that are not predominantly white run. Not only does this cause nations to not help others, this fuels racism within nations. This reductionist view and desire to be seen as more white creates an us (white people) against them (all other cultures and races) mentality seen through common views across america such as “build a wall”. This needs to change, the racist laws and practices need to change, and the first step to this is to stop this reductionist nationalism and instead create a space where culture is celebrated and being seen as more white, more English is no longer a desired trait for a nation.
Works Cited:
Allegra Villarreal, Editor. “Four Branches of the Mabinogi.” An Open Companion to Early British Literature, 22 Jan. 2019, https://pressbooks.pub/earlybritishlit/chapter/four-branches-of-the-mabinogi/.
Cerys Matthews“The Secret Life of Books: The Mabinogion” YouTube, YouTube, 15 June 2015, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QVd-iADIH7w&t=385s.
Joseph Black, Leonard Conolly, Kate Flint, Isobel Grundy, Don LePan, Roy Liuzza, Jerome J. McGann, Anne Lake Prescott, Barry V. Qualls, Claire Waters, eds. The Broadview Anthology of British Literature Concise Edition, Volume A, Third Edition, Broadview Press.
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